Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Waltz Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Waltz - Essay Example According to the conventional view, realism is apprehensive with how the humankind is in contrast with the ideal situation, this is to mean that it is an empirical rather than normative paradigm. Realism views things from a pessimistic perspective since it emphasizes on the patterns of power politics that are dominant in the global political arena manifested through wars, recurring conflicts and rivalry among nations. Issues such as balance of power and security threats and measures are the main tools that the realism uses in the study of world politics; in addition, realists consider a state as the main player in international politics. Realism pays special attention to the most powerful states as they have a greater say in international politics compared to the less powerful states, the behaviour of these states usually dictates the patterns of international relations since they are considered rational egoists whose self interests come first. In the orthodox view, four differences are evident between classical realism and structural realism; the first difference is that while classical realism tries to locate the source of international conflict and wars to the imperfect nature of human beings, structural realism attributes these conflicts and wars to the anarchic nature of the international political system. The second difference is that while classical realism recognises the state as the most superior player in international relations, structural realism recognizes the role played by agents.... Realism pays special attention to the most powerful states as they have a greater say in international politics compared to the less powerful states, the behaviour of these states usually dictates the patterns of international relations since they are considered rational egoists whose self interests come first. In the orthodox view, four differences are evident between classical realism and structural realism; the first difference is that while classical realism tries to locate the source of international conflict and wars to the imperfect nature of human beings, structural realism attributes these conflicts and wars to the anarchic nature of the international political system. The second difference is that while classical realism recognises the state as the most superior player in international relations, structural realism recognizes the role played by agents. The third difference is that classical realism recognises the original super powers and the new powers in international rel ations while structural realism recognizes states as independent and unitary actors. The fourth difference is that while structural realism uses scientific methodology to study international relations which is influenced by the behaviourist revolution of the 1960’s, classical realism studies international relations based on based on an individual’s subjective valuations. Defining power Realism believes that the actions of a country are to a large extent determined by events that happen in the international arena. Hans Morgenthau defines power as the anything that gives a man control over another person; this includes both physical aggression and psychological manipulation of the subjects. According to Hans, the most important material

Political Ideologies of American Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Political Ideologies of American Law - Essay Example Communism on the other hand, as defined by West Encyclopedia for American Law is â€Å"a theoretical economic system characterized by the collective ownership of property and by the organization of labor for the common.†. The purpose of communism is to have common ownership of properties. The government regulates access to labor and its produce on to what is satisfactorily needed by each individual in the society. There are different kinds and forms of communism developed by several philosophers such as Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin. But we shall focus on the economic reforms that both Libertarianism and Communism wish to offer.   Communism believes that the working class is the solution and that giving more power to the working class, dissolving any division in the society and avoiding any possible exploitation from the capitalist class can eliminate a division in society. This is why the government chooses to regulate the economy, and abolishes private ownership. Communism sees capitalism as a mere exploitation of the working class.   Rousseaus (1978) origin story of the bourgeois political order holds that the ideology of communism, evolves through a pledge by the citizenry, a social pact to establish equality among each other, that they will place themselves under the same conditions and enjoy the same rights (p. 76).   Libertarianism and Communism are two opposite ideology, put it simply, the first gives importance and the sanctity of an individual’s freedom, separate from any control by society. It is the free will and independence of man and his own volition that controls his fate. On the other hand, the Communist is ruled by the society, as a working class, co-equal in everything without any other class or division. It is unity between every man, without having one man better than the other.

Analyzing And Improving The Appropriateness Of The Exams Term Paper

Analyzing And Improving The Appropriateness Of The Exams - Term Paper Example To determine these factors, a myriad of assessment methods are used on the exam questions, including basic statistics to determine the performance of the students, qualitative and quantitative item analysis. In this case, basic statistics include the mean of each question in the exam and the entire test (Black, 2003). Qualitative item analysis refers to the careful reading of the contents of the exam to determine the accuracy of the exam, find proofreading errors, and determine whether any components of the exam could tip the students towards the correct answer (Triola, 2003). This paper will analyze the hypothetical psychology test presented using the methods discussed above, after which a suggested method for improving the exam is given. The first part of this analysis will focus on basic statistics, followed by the qualitative item analysis and the quantitative item analysis. The quantitative analysis will be focused on determining a difficulty-rating index for each question in th e test. The mean for the entire test is found by adding the total scores by each student, as represented by the totals column. The mean is then found by adding all the total scores and dividing the sum by the number of students taking the test (Black, 2003). As previously mentioned, the analysis of the test will include an analysis of the basic statistics, which in this case is the mean for each question and the entire test. The mean score for the first question is 1.8, which indicates that the pass rate is high among all the students.... Basic Statistics: Mean for Entire Test Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5 Total Student 1 2 2 0 2 0 6 Student 2 2 2 0 2 0 6 Student 3 2 0 0 2 0 4 Student 4 2 2 0 2 0 6 Student 5 2 2 2 2 2 10 Student 6 2 0 0 2 0 4 Student 7 2 2 0 2 0 6 Student 8 0 0 0 2 0 2 Student 9 2 2 0 2 0 6 Student 10 2 2 0 2 0 6 Mean 5.6 The mean for the entire test is found by adding the total scores by each student, as represented by the totals column. The mean is then found by adding all the total scores and dividing the sum by the number of students taking the test (Black, 2003). Graphs for Each Question Analysis As previously mentioned, the analysis of the test will include an analysis of the basic statistics, which in this case is the mean for each question and the entire test. The mean score for the first question is 1.8, which indicates that the pass rate is high among all the students. Question 2 has a mean score of 1.4, while questions 3 and 5 have mean scores of 0.2. Question 4 has a mean score of 2. The mean scores indicated above show the average pass rate for each question for each question, and can be sued as an indicator for the difficulty rating for each question in the test. This indicates that the easiest question is question 4, and the most difficult questions are questions 3 and 5. The mean for the entire test is 5.6, and indicates that the pas rate was evenly distributed among the students. This pass rate is depicted by the graphs shown above, which indicate the scores for each question. To determine the difficulty and appropriateness of each question, we have to conduct both qualitative and qualitative analyses.

Political Ideologies of American Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Political Ideologies of American Law - Essay Example Communism on the other hand, as defined by West Encyclopedia for American Law is â€Å"a theoretical economic system characterized by the collective ownership of property and by the organization of labor for the common.†. The purpose of communism is to have common ownership of properties. The government regulates access to labor and its produce on to what is satisfactorily needed by each individual in the society. There are different kinds and forms of communism developed by several philosophers such as Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin. But we shall focus on the economic reforms that both Libertarianism and Communism wish to offer.   Communism believes that the working class is the solution and that giving more power to the working class, dissolving any division in the society and avoiding any possible exploitation from the capitalist class can eliminate a division in society. This is why the government chooses to regulate the economy, and abolishes private ownership. Communism sees capitalism as a mere exploitation of the working class.   Rousseaus (1978) origin story of the bourgeois political order holds that the ideology of communism, evolves through a pledge by the citizenry, a social pact to establish equality among each other, that they will place themselves under the same conditions and enjoy the same rights (p. 76).   Libertarianism and Communism are two opposite ideology, put it simply, the first gives importance and the sanctity of an individual’s freedom, separate from any control by society. It is the free will and independence of man and his own volition that controls his fate. On the other hand, the Communist is ruled by the society, as a working class, co-equal in everything without any other class or division. It is unity between every man, without having one man better than the other.

Neuroscience Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Neuroscience - Article Example the center 4 tiles), the amount of time a rat spent in the center of the field (i.e. the center 4 tiles), and the number of tile crossings all indicated that rats treated with LiCl had indeed reduced risk taking, locomotor activity and exploratory behavior when undergoing the open-field test compared to sodium chloride (NaCl) treated control rats. Note, the tendency of the rat to cling and spend much time on the walls of the test apparatus indicates a high level of anxiety or fear. On the contrary, a less fearful rat portrays the tendency of greater exploration within the experiment apparatus. As such, the rats that had been injected with LiCl spent much time on the walls of the apparatus – a sign of increased fear and high level of anxiety. The results obtained in this test were in agreement with other studies previously conducted. Laboratory observations have suggested an interaction between lithium chloride (LiCl) and exploratory behavior of rats. Studies have confirmed that LiCl administration tends to suppress locomotor activity in rats (Johnson et al., 1972). An open field apparatus was used to observe the exploratory behavior and the movement of the rats one hour after the injection of LiCl. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of LiCl on risk taking, exploratory behavior, and locomotor activity of rats. The behavioral pharmacology test conducted was aimed at seeing the effectiveness of Lithium chloride on the various specimens used and their response. The experiment used Lithium Chloride as the main ingredient and sodium chloride as the control solution. The main objective of the experiment was an observation of the effects of taking against not taking Lithium chloride and on the other hand taking sodium chloride. We used an Open Field Apparatus from whence we could observe the behavior of the rat immediately after the injection with the drug.

Reluctant Collectivists Essay Example for Free

Reluctant Collectivists Essay The events of the 20th century, especially of its first part had brought a lot of things to think over in political and economical sphere. The global economical crisis of the 1930ies and the War time had proved there have to be changes made in the regulation of the political and social relationships as well as in the government policy. Time showed that for consistent and stable development of the country there as to special welfare social programs that would defend all classes of the society.    Reluctant collectivists proposed that there has to be state intervention in the country’s economy that would execute the role of mechanism for making good the failure of the market to control avoidable ills, but they didn’t have a purpose of using it as the only instrument for economical change.    Two of the most known reluctant collectivists Keynes and Beveridge are known to be the founders of the British Welfare sate. They strongly believed in the concept of free market relations, and the minimization of the state intervention by their opinion would maximize the efficiency of economics, political and social freedoms.   Ã‚  Ã‚   But still reluctant collectivists argued that for a wide variety of political and economical reasons the market in the free society was not working on the ideal level as it was noted by economic theorists. The economical problems and social issues that Great Britain faced during and after WW2 motivated the need of state regulation, as they proposed. By their opinion the economical waste and instability may discredit parliamentary democracy and gave the birth to mistrust to the government.    Even though that reluctant collectivists were in favor of state regulations and intervention of state to the market and economics of the country in the serious period of economical situation, they still didn’t fully support social insurance system. By their opinion the organization of social security is not the state’s problem, the assistance schemes of the government according to reluctant collectivists should simply include the guarantee of living income for each citizen. And that’s why the living standards above the minimum wage have to be gained by individuals themselves.    The philosophical premises of the reluctant collectivism are originated in the theories of free market, which is considered to be the best mechanism that insures initiative of the individual and hence political freedom.   But here comes the question: if there has to be a need in state regulation of market and economical relations how much of the intervention is needed for that. The obvious answer is the following: the weakness and the strengths of the market have to be analyzed first. This pragmatism puts reluctant collectivists close to the conservatives, whose philosophy accepts the preserving of the best that remains from the past, while adopting new things that are most likely to change the situation for better.    Justification of their political aims and program by reluctant collectivists during the period of serious economical issues in the UK helped Conservatives to come to power in 1950ies and 1960ies. But still the theory of â€Å"reluctant collectivism† that seems to rapidly react on the changes in state’s market and economy can not fully answer the question what is good for the further development of market that doesn’t face problems. As the result the existing problems in understanding of the market development program caused the contradictions in the views of conservatives and those who belonged to reluctant collectivists. The understanding of the market virtues by reluctant collectivists didn’t give the chance for introducing and practicing economical and market reforms. As a result most of their programs lost their actuality in 1960ies. Reference George. V. Wilding, P(1985). The Reluctant collectivists. In ideology and social welfare(pp.44-68). New York: Routledge.

History and Concepts of Human Rights

History and Concepts of Human Rights A. HISTORY + CONCEPTS OF HUMAN RIGHTS 1. What were the major conceptual and historical influences on the drafting of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights? The major conceptual and historical influences on the drafting of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights had began at the beginning of the Second World War then the prominent scholars of that time started writing about the importance of Human Rights. The prominent British utopian writer H. G. Wells launched a campaign to bring Human Rights to the attention of the public at large. In yearly 1940s Wells, had written a lot of works concerning with the issue of Human Rights. Hence he entitled one of his books The Right of Man or What Are We Fighting For? He spoke or corresponded with any leading figures of the time, including Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, Jan Masaryk, Gandhi and many others, who at the end of the war would draft the preamble of the United Nations Charter and Universal Declaration of Human Right. Many other individuals and NGOs added their contributions, such as the journalist Clarence Streit published his book Union Now: A Proposal, urging all democra tic nations to unite on behalf of individual freedoms and what he called â€Å"the rights of man.† (Paul Gordon Lauren, 2003). Freeman (2002, p.32) points that the period from French Revolution to the Second World War was the dark age of the concept of human rights.. So, one can say that, at the end of the Second World War, the people had realized the importance of the concept of Human Rights. 2. What were the main contemporary events influencing the drafting of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The campaign reminds us that in a world still reeling from the horrors of the Second World War, the Declaration was the first global statement of what we now take for granted the inherent dignity and equality of all human beings.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (2008) From his words one can say that the main event which had great influence on drafting of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights was the Second World War. The horror of the Second World War made international community to act towards human rights and to prevent future wars. 3. How would you describe the competing conceptions of rights that existed during the period of the Cold War? In 1976, the two conventions finally came into force with thirty-five states ratifying them. The two conventions were the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Why two covenants? The Cold War was still firmly in place, and the focus of the two political blocs (U.S. and the USSR) had very different emphases on what counted as human rights. The U.S. bloc focused on civil and political rights, while the Soviet bloc focused more on economic and social rights. The Commission wisely drafted two separate conventions to reflect this difference in focus (Centre on Law Globalization n.d.). 4. With reference to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and to the concept of ‘dignity, outline the human rights perspective on torture. Article 5 of the UDHR states that â€Å"[n]o one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment†, and the prohibition against torture and abuse is now codified in a number of international and regional treaties to which many countries are a party, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the UN Convention Against Torture. The prohibition of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment is absolute and non-derogable. Unfortunately, violations of this most prized human right occur routinely in many prisons, although they are sanctioned by official policy (Human Rights Watch 2009). 5. Outline and characterize in not more than 75 words the relationship between religious freedom and gender equality.   Ã‚  Ã‚  To resolve conflicts between the two sets of rights, we need balancing approach based on facts. The factors that she highlights as important to consider when the rights clash include: the relationship between the equality right and the goal of gender equality, the importance of the religious practice to the right of religious freedom, the degree of infringement, the relation of other human rights to the conflict, the cumulative effects of religious limitations on womens rights, and the proportionality of restrictions on religious laws (NYU of Law 2009). 6. Why does Donnelly (Donnelly 2003, pp.22-37 204-224) argue that individuals, rather than groups, are the proper subject of human rights? Donnelly (2003 p.25) argues that if human rights are the rights that one has simply as a human being, then only human beings have human rights; if one is not a human being, by definition one cannot have human rights. Because only individual persons are human beings, it would seem that only individuals can have human rights. 7. Identify and discuss in no more than 75 words the impact of TWO events on the expansion of human rights in the last ten years. From my point view one of the events is the end of Cold War Era and second is Terrorism. The end of Cold War had opened new borders for spreading the concept of Human Rights. The second event which had an impact on the expansion of human rights is Terrorism. Nowadays Terrorism is the most threat to anyone, and this â€Å"word† is everywhere and lots of people are suffering. So these two events had a great impact on the expansion of human rights. B. INTERNATIONAL MACHINERY 8. Explain the difference between a declaration and a treaty. A treaty is a legally binding convention, coming into force upon ratification by a certain number of States. A declaration is not legally binding but carries moral weight because it is adopted by the international community (UN 2009) 9. Which international treaty has the most ratifications, and how many? More countries have ratified the Convention than any other human rights treaty in history-192 countries had become State Parties to the Convention as of November 2005 (UNICEF 2009). 10. Which rights are non-derogable under the ICCPR? What does this mean? According to the Article 4, section 2 of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) no derogation from articles 6, 7, 8 (paragraphs I and 2), 11, 15, 16 and 18 may be made under this provision. Well this means that sates can not ‘take measures derogating from their obligations []‘ (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966) 11. Identify a case under the ICCPR Optional Protocol where the Committee has found in favour of the petitioner. Supply the citation for the case and summarise the Committees view in not more than 75 words. Article I of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976) states that a State Party to the Covenant that becomes a Party to the present Protocol recognizes the competence of the Committee to receive and consider communications from individuals subject to its jurisdiction who claim to be victims of a violation by that State Party of any of the rights set forth in the Covenant. No communication shall be received by the Committee if it concerns a State Party to the Covenant which is not a Party to the present Protocol. Well, Optional Protocol allows individuals to complain to the Human Rights Committee about violations of the Covenant. 12. In 100 words state what in your view was the most significant issue raised by the UN Human Rights Committee in its recent review of Finland and why. Finlands State Secretary of Political Affairs, Dr. Teija Tiilikainen (2008), said that despite progress the country still struggles with cases of racism and intolerance. Looking through the Universal Periodic Review, I made a conclusion that Finland still facing problems like discrimination, racism and xenophobic attitudes. In my opinion the most significant issue raised by UN Human Rights Committee is racism and intolerance. The issues of racism and intolerance were raised by UN because, from the history we can see that all these destabilisations within the country like racism, intolerance were bringing the country to the humanitarian crisis. 13. How does the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child define a child? Article 1 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) defines child as, [] every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier. 14. What has to happen before the UN Convention on the Rights of Disabled People enters into force? Before the UN Convention on the Rights of Disabled People came into force, the UN established an Ad Hoc Committee â€Å"to consider proposals for a comprehensive and integral international convention to promote and protect the rights and dignity of persons with disabilities, based on the holistic approach in the work done in the fields of social development, human rights and non-discrimination and taking into account the recommendations of the Commission on Human Rights and the Commission for Social Development.† (ENABLE 2007). 15. What reservation has Argentina made to CEDAW? What is the impact of this reservation? The Government of Argentina declares that it does not consider itself bound by article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (Bayefsky 2008). 16. Who is the current United Nations Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons and when was she appointed? The current United Nations Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons is Ms. Joy Ngozi Ezeilo from Nigeria. She was appointed in June 2008 (United Nations Human Rights 2009). C. REGIONAL MACHINERY 17. Who is entitled to submit individual complaints under the European, American and African regional human rights systems and to which particular regional bodies? According to the Article 34 of the Convention for the protection of Human Rights (2003) the court may receive applications from any person [] claiming to be the victim of violation by []. Article 19 of the same Convention states, to ensure the observance of the engagements undertaken by the High Contracting Parties in the Convention and the Protocols thereto, there shall be set up a European Court of Human Rights, hereinafter referred to as the Court. It shall function on a permanent basis (European Court of Human Rights 2009). So basically, other regional human rights systems are established almost in the same way of European. 18. How many States are currently members of the Council of Europe? Which State is the most recent member? Which States special guest status has been suspended due to its lack of respect for human rights and democratic principles? Cite your source(s). Currently members of the Council of Europe are 47 countries. The most recent member is Montenegro, which joined the Council of Europe on 11th May 2007 (Council of Europe 2009). In January 1997 the Bureau of the Parliamentary Assembly decided to suspend the special guest status for the Parliament of Belarus. As a result, the consideration of Belarus application for membership in the Council of Europe was suspended, and the bilateral Cooperation Programme was frozen (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus 2009). 19. What Conventions has the Council of Europe adopted which offer specific protection for minorities? There are several Conventions adopted by Council of Europe for the protection of minorities, such as European Convention on the repatriation of minors, European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Council of Europe 2009). 20. When did the European Convention for the Prevention of Torture come into force and how many States are currently parties to it? What monitoring and/or enforcement machinery did the Convention establish and what does it do? European Convention for the Prevention of Torture came into force on 1st March 2002 and it is ratified by 47 states. The Convention operates in relation to persons who allege that they are victims of violations of Article3 and the main purpose of the Convention is to protect people from torture (Council of Europe 2009). 21. When did the Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearance of Persons come into force? How does it define forced disappearance? The Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearance of Persons came into force on May 28 1996 (The Secretariat for Legal Affairs n.d.). Article second of Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearance of Persons (1994) defines that forced disappearance is considered to be the act of depriving a person or persons of his or their freedom, in whatever way, perpetrated by agents of the state or by persons or groups of persons acting with the authorization, support, or acquiescence of the state, followed by an absence of information or a refusal to acknowledge that deprivation of freedom or to give information on the whereabouts of that person, thereby impeding his or her recourse to the applicable legal remedies and procedural guarantees (The Secretariat for Legal Affairs n.d.). 22. Under what authority can States denounce the American Convention on Human Rights? When did Trinidad Tobago denounce the ACHR and why? According to the Article 78 of the American Convention on Human Rights (1969), The States Parties may denounce this Convention at the expiration of a five-year period from the date of its entry into force and by means of notice given one year in advance. Notice of the denunciation shall be addressed to the Secretary General of the Organization, who shall inform the other States Parties. The Denunciation of Trinidad and Tobago was notified in May 26, 1998, and denunciation was because of death penalty (The Secretariat for Legal Affairs n.d.). 23. When was Algerias 3rd and 4th periodic reports (submitted in September 2006) examined by the African Commission? To whom does the report say capital punishment does not apply in Algeria? Algerias 3rd and 4th periodic reports were examined by the African Commission on it 42nd Ordinary Session from 15th to 28th of November in 2007 (African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights 2009). Capital punishment is not applicable to minors aged 13 to 18.Article 50 of the Criminal Code provides that â€Å"should be decided that a minor aged between 13 to 18 must be given criminal sentence []. (Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria. African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, Third and fourth periodical reports, 2006, p.13) 24. What instrument established the African Court of Human and Peoples Rights? What jurisdiction does the Court have? Is it operational? The African Court of Human and Peoples Rights was established by African Charter of Human and Peoples Rights (African International Courts and Tribunals n. d.). The Court has the competence to take final and binding decisions on human rights violations perpetrated by AU Member States. The competence of the African Court on Human and Peoples Rights is based on its jurisdiction and the law that it will apply when exercising this jurisdiction (African Court on Human and Peoples Rights n. d.).The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights Establishing the ACHPR entered into force on January 25, 2004 upon its ratification by fifteen member states. The statute of the ACHPR has not yet been promulgated and a seat for the court has yet to be determined, therefore much of the data regarding its functioning is not yet available (African International Courts and Tribunals n. d.). But the main functions of the Court has been set up, As mentioned above The Court has the competence to take final and binding decisions on human rights violations perpetrated by AU Member States (African Court on Human and Peoples Rights n. d.). All together one can say that it is operational but not all of its functions have been set up. 25. When was the Arab League established? List its current membership. Why was Egypts membership suspended in 1979? What happened as a result? When was Egypt readmitted? Arab League was established in 1945. The current members are 22 countries: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen (Al-bab n. d.). The membership of Egypt was stopped, because in 1979 Egypt signed a peace treaty with Israel. As a result the headquarters was moved from Cairo to Tunis. Egypt was readmitted to the league in 1989 and the leagues headquarters was moved back to Cairo (Pan Arab n. d.). Bibliography Books Donnelly J 2003, Universal Human Rights in theory and practice, 2nd edn, Cornell University Press, New York, USA. Freeman M 2002, Human Rights, Polity Press, Cambridge, UK Lauren P G 2003, The evolution of international human rights: visions seen, 2nd edn, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, USA. Electronic Sources African International Courts and Tribunals (n. d.) The African Court on Human and Peoples Rights. Available at: http://www.aict-ctia.org/courts_conti/achpr/achpr_home.html (Accessed: 15 November 2009) African Court on Human and Peoples Rights (n. d.) General information. Available at: http://www.african-court.org/en/court/mandate/general-information/ (Accessed: 15 November 2009 ) African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights (2009) Status on Submission of State Initial/Periodic Reports to the African Commission. Available at: http://www.achpr.org/english/_info/statereport_considered_en.html (Accessed: 16 November 2009) African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights (2009) Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria. African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, Third and fourth periodical reports, 2006. Available at: http://www.achpr.org/english/state_reports/Algeria/Algeria%20report_eng.pdf (Accessed: 16 November 2009 ) Articles by Brian Whitaker (n. d.) The League of Arab States. Available at: http://www.al-bab.com/Arab/docs/league.htm (Accessed: 15 November 2009) Bayefsky (n.d.) the United Nations Human Rights Treaties. Available at: http://www.bayefsky.com/pdf/argentina_t2_cedaw.pdf (Accessed: 16 November) Centre on Law Globalization (n. d.), Human Rights Fail During the Cold War. Available at: http://clg.portalxm.com/library/keytext.cfm?keytext_id=121 (Accessed 18 November) Council of Europe (2009), European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 26 November 1987. Available at: http://www.cpt.coe.int/EN/documents/ecpt.htm (Accessed 18 November) Council of Europe (2009), Complete list of the Council of Europes treaties. Available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeTraites.asp?CM=8CL=ENG (Accessed: 16 November) Council of Europe (2009), Council of Europe in brief. Available at: http://www.coe.int/aboutCoe/index.asp?page=47pays1europel=en (Accessed: 16 November) Enable (2007), Rights and Dignity of Persons with Disabilities,. Available at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/rights/adhoccom.htm (Accessed: 18 November) European Court of Human Rights (2009), Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms as amended by Protocol No. 11. Available at: http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D5CC24A7-DC13-4318-B457-5C9014916D7A/0/EnglishAnglais.pdf (Accessed: 16 November) Human Rights Watch (2009), Special Comment: A Human Rights Perspective on Segregating the Mentally Ill. 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